Formation of Schools and Traditions
Formation of Schools and Traditions
The centuries following the Buddha’s Parinirvāṇa were a time of both consolidation and diversification. The Dharma had been set in motion, the Sangha established, and the memory of the Buddha preserved through councils and oral transmission. Yet the absence of the Master also meant that questions of interpretation, discipline, and authority began to surface. As the Buddhist community spread across India and beyond, it encountered new cultural contexts, intellectual challenges, and practical needs. Out of this ferment arose multiple schools and traditions, each seeking to preserve the Buddha’s teaching while adapting it to changing circumstances.
This essay examines the formation of Buddhist schools and traditions, tracing their development from the earliest schisms to the emergence of Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna. It explores the philosophical diversity that characterised Buddhist thought, considers the historical forces that shaped different traditions, and reflects on the legacy of these schools in the modern world.
Early Schisms in the Sangha
The first centuries after the Buddha’s death witnessed the gradual fragmentation of the Sangha into distinct groups. While the First Council at Rājagaha sought to establish unity, disagreements soon arose regarding discipline (Vinaya) and doctrine (Dhamma).
Tradition holds that the first major split occurred around a century after the Buddha’s death, during the Second Council at Vesālī. The dispute centred on monastic discipline, specifically the permissibility of certain practices such as handling money. A group of monks known as the Mahāsāṃghikas (“Great Community”) broke away from the Sthaviras (“Elders”), leading to the first division in the Sangha (Warder 212).
Over the next centuries, further divisions multiplied. By some accounts, as many as eighteen schools emerged, though these may represent doctrinal tendencies rather than fully independent institutions. Notable among them were the Sarvāstivādins, who held that all dharmas exist in past, present, and future; the Dharmaguptakas, known for their Vinaya code; and the Pudgalavādins, who posited the existence of a “person” as a basis for continuity across rebirths. These early schools laid the groundwork for the rich diversity of later Buddhism.
The Theravāda Tradition
Among the early schools, the Theravāda (“Teaching of the Elders”) is the only one to survive to the present day. Rooted in the Sthavira lineage, Theravāda took firm hold in Sri Lanka after the missions of Aśoka’s son Mahinda in the 3rd century BCE. From there, it spread to Southeast Asia, where it remains dominant in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.
The Theravāda canon, preserved in Pali, became the authoritative scripture of the tradition. Known as the Tipiṭaka (Three Baskets), it comprises the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic discipline), Sutta Pitaka (discourses), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical analysis). While other schools developed their own canons in Sanskrit or Prakrit, the Pali Canon remains the oldest complete collection of Buddhist scriptures (Gethin 289).
Theravāda emphasises the ideal of the arahant, the fully enlightened disciple who achieves liberation by following the Buddha’s path. Its practice centres on monastic discipline, meditation, and lay generosity. The close relationship between monks and lay supporters, established early in Sri Lanka, became a defining feature. Laypeople support the Sangha materially, while monks provide teaching, guidance, and ritual services.
The tradition also produced rich commentarial literature, notably the works of Buddhaghosa in the 5th century CE. His Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) remains a central manual of Theravāda meditation and philosophy. Through such works, Theravāda preserved continuity with the earliest teachings while developing sophisticated systems of practice and thought.
The Emergence of Mahāyāna
Around the 1st century BCE, a new current within Buddhism began to take shape: the Mahāyāna (“Great Vehicle”). While not initially a separate school, Mahāyāna represented a shift in emphasis and aspiration. Its hallmark was the ideal of the bodhisattva, one who vows to attain enlightenment not merely for personal liberation but for the liberation of all beings.
Mahāyāna introduced new scriptures, the Mahāyāna sūtras, which presented expansive cosmologies, new buddhas and bodhisattvas, and profound philosophical doctrines. Among these were the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras (Perfection of Wisdom), which taught the doctrine of śūnyatā (emptiness), and the Lotus Sūtra, which proclaimed the universality of buddhahood (Strong 201).
Philosophically, Mahāyāna gave rise to influential schools. The Madhyamaka, founded by Nāgārjuna in the 2nd century CE, emphasised the emptiness of all phenomena, rejecting inherent existence and affirming dependent origination as the ultimate truth. The Yogācāra, associated with Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, developed a “mind-only” perspective, analysing consciousness in depth and positing storehouse consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna) as the basis of experience. These schools profoundly shaped Buddhist philosophy across Asia (Harvey 169).
Mahāyāna also developed devotional practices centred on celestial buddhas and bodhisattvas. Amitābha Buddha, associated with the Pure Land tradition, promised rebirth in a paradise where enlightenment was assured. Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, became a beloved figure across cultures, manifesting in China as Guanyin and in Tibet as Chenrezig. Such devotional practices expanded Buddhism’s accessibility to laypeople, complementing the rigorous meditative paths of monasticism.
Vajrayāna and Tantric Buddhism
From around the 6th century CE, another distinctive form of Buddhism emerged in India: Vajrayāna, or the “Diamond Vehicle.” Also known as Tantric Buddhism, Vajrayāna built upon Mahāyāna foundations but introduced esoteric practices designed to accelerate the path to enlightenment.
Vajrayāna employed mantras, mudrās (gestures), mandalas, and visualisation practices to transform perception and embody enlightened qualities. Rather than renouncing the world, practitioners sought to transmute desire, anger, and ignorance into wisdom and compassion. This radical approach was said to enable attainment of buddhahood within a single lifetime (Samuel 248).
The transmission of Vajrayāna to Tibet, as described in the previous essay, made the Tibetan plateau its stronghold. There it flourished, integrating with indigenous traditions and producing elaborate rituals, sacred art, and powerful institutions. While Vajrayāna declined in India after the 12th century, it survived in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, and eventually spread globally in the modern era.
Philosophical Traditions
The formation of schools was not merely a matter of institutional division but also of intellectual creativity. Buddhist philosophy developed remarkable depth and diversity, addressing questions of ontology, epistemology, and ethics.
The Abhidharma traditions of the early schools sought to analyse reality into ultimate constituents (dharmas), categorising mental and physical phenomena with precision. The Sarvāstivādins produced the Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra, a massive compendium that influenced Central Asian and Chinese thought. The Theravāda Abhidhamma, preserved in Pali, developed its own detailed system of analysis.
Madhyamaka, as articulated by Nāgārjuna, critiqued all views, affirming that phenomena lack inherent existence. This “middle way” between eternalism and nihilism became a cornerstone of Mahāyāna thought. Yogācāra, in contrast, emphasised the role of consciousness, arguing that external objects are projections of mind. These philosophical traditions often engaged in debate, stimulating intellectual life across India, Tibet, and East Asia (Gethin 315).
Cultural Adaptation and Syncretism
The formation of schools and traditions was also shaped by cultural adaptation. In China, Mahāyāna engaged with Daoism and Confucianism, producing distinctive schools such as Chan and Pure Land. In Tibet, Vajrayāna absorbed elements of the indigenous Bön religion, transforming local deities into Dharma protectors. In Southeast Asia, Theravāda coexisted with animist practices, producing rich syncretic traditions.
These adaptations did not dilute Buddhism but enriched it, enabling the Dharma to resonate with diverse populations. The schools of Buddhism are thus not rigid sects but living traditions that evolved through dialogue with their environments.
Scholarly Perspectives
Modern scholarship views the formation of Buddhist schools as a dynamic process rather than a simple branching tree. Some scholars question whether the “eighteen schools” ever existed as distinct entities, suggesting instead that they represent categories of doctrinal emphasis (Warder 227). The emergence of Mahāyāna is also debated: was it a lay movement, a monastic reform, or both? The diversity of Mahāyāna texts suggests a decentralised and pluralistic process.
What is clear is that the diversity of Buddhist schools reflects the tradition’s adaptability. Rather than insisting on uniformity, Buddhism accommodated multiple perspectives, bound together by the shared aspiration for liberation.
Legacy of the Schools
The formation of schools and traditions left an enduring legacy. Theravāda preserved the earliest scriptures and shaped the religious life of Southeast Asia. Mahāyāna opened new horizons of philosophy and devotion, flourishing in China, Korea, and Japan. Vajrayāna developed esoteric practices that continue to inspire practitioners worldwide.
Together, these traditions illustrate the richness of Buddhism’s heritage. Far from fragmenting into irreconcilable sects, Buddhism developed a pluralism that allowed it to thrive across cultures. In the modern world, practitioners can draw upon Theravāda insight meditation, Mahāyāna compassion practices, and Vajrayāna rituals, often within a single lifetime. This diversity is not a weakness but a strength, reflecting the universality of the Dharma.
Conclusion
The formation of schools and traditions in Buddhism reflects the dynamic interplay of continuity and change. Rooted in the teachings of the historical Buddha, the Dharma expanded, diversified, and adapted to new contexts. The early schisms gave rise to enduring traditions such as Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna, each offering unique paths to liberation. Philosophical creativity enriched Buddhist thought, while cultural adaptation ensured its resonance across Asia.
For modern readers, the history of Buddhist schools is a reminder that truth is not monolithic but multifaceted. The Dharma is a living tradition, capable of taking many forms while pointing towards the same ultimate goal: the cessation of suffering and the realisation of liberation.
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References
Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press, 1998.
Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Samuel, Geoffrey. Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.
Strong, John S. The Buddha: A Short Biography. Oneworld, 2001.
Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, 2000.